An inguinal hernia occurs when abdominal contents protrude through a weakened area in the groin. Surgical repair is the definitive treatment; supportive measures like truss belts are not long-term solutions.

A femoral hernia is a protrusion through the femoral canal in the upper thigh. Due to high risk of incarceration and strangulation, surgical repair is recommended even if asymptomatic.

An umbilical hernia is a protrusion near the navel where intestine or fat pushes through the abdominal wall. In infants, it often closes spontaneously by 18 months; in adults or persistent cases, surgical repair is advised to prevent complications.

An incisional hernia appears at the site of a prior surgical incision due to muscle weakness. Repair may be laparoscopic for smaller defects or open for larger hernias containing abdominal organs.

Epigastric hernias occur along the midline between the sternum and umbilicus when fatty tissue pushes through a fascial defect. Surgical repair is performed for symptomatic relief or cosmetic reasons.

A Spigelian hernia protrudes through a weakness in the Spigelian fascia along the lateral abdomen. Due to risk of incarceration, surgical repair is generally recommended even for small defects.

A parastomal hernia develops adjacent to a stoma (surgically created opening for waste diversion). If it causes symptoms, hinders stoma care, or risks complications, surgical repair is indicated.

Acute cholecystitis is sudden inflammation of the gallbladder, most often caused by gallstone obstruction of the cystic duct.

Chronic cholecystitis is long-standing inflammation of the gallbladder, often resulting from repeated acute attacks or gradual onset without prior acute episodes. Definitive treatment is laparoscopic cholecystectomy.

Gallbladder polyps are mucosal growths protruding into the gallbladder lumen. Surgery is indicated if polyps enlarge (>9 mm) or change between six-month ultrasound scans to prevent malignant transformation.

Porcelain gallbladder is a chronic calcific condition of the gallbladder wall, often associated with gallstones. Calcium deposits make the gallbladder rigid—hence the name. Treatment is surgical removal (cholecystectomy) due to a significantly increased risk of gallbladder carcinoma.

Gallbladder carcinoma is a rare, aggressive cancer often discovered incidentally, complicating treatment. Early-stage disease is primarily managed surgically, usually followed by radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy.

Gallbladder empyema is a severe complication of acute cholecystitis characterized by pus in the gallbladder. It requires urgent antibiotics and surgical drainage or cholecystectomy to prevent septic shock.

Hepatocellular carcinoma is the most common and aggressive form of liver cancer, arising from hepatocytes. Treatment choices depend on disease stage and patient health and may include surgical resection of the tumor or liver segment, liver transplantation, tumor ablation (minimally invasive needle-guided heat destruction), chemotherapy, and selective internal radiation therapy (SIRT) using radioactive microspheres.

Liver metastases are secondary tumors that develop when cancer cells from a primary tumor elsewhere spread to the liver. Treatment options include surgical resection, cryoablation (freezing tumor tissue), thermal ablation, transarterial embolization (blocking blood flow to tumors), chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and radiotherapy.

Benign liver tumors are noncancerous growths in the liver. They are common and often asymptomatic. Treatment may be needed if the tumor bleeds, obstructs bile ducts, shows growth, or has potential for malignancy. Options include surgical removal, thermal or cryoablation, and arterial embolization.

A liver abscess is a localized collection of pus in the liver and requires prompt diagnosis and treatment. Complications can include spread of infection in the abdominal cavity, fistula formation, and sepsis. Large abscesses are managed by surgical drainage; smaller ones may be treated percutaneously under ultrasound or CT guidance, or via laparoscopic drainage.

Hydatid cysts of the liver are fluid-filled cavities containing parasitic larvae (Echinococcus) transmitted by dogs and other carnivores. Treatment approaches include surgical removal, PAIR procedure (Puncture, Aspiration, Injection, Reaspiration) under imaging guidance, and antiparasitic medications to prevent spread.

Complex congenital liver anomalies are intricate, birth-related structural abnormalities of the liver. Treatment may involve interventional radiology procedures, surgery, and medical therapy. In the most severe cases leading to liver failure, liver transplantation may be the only life-saving option.

Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is a malignant tumor of the pancreatic tissue. It is often aggressive and diagnosed late due to nonspecific symptoms. When symptoms (jaundice, abdominal/back pain, weight loss) appear, the disease is frequently advanced. Surgical resection of the tumor-bearing portion of the pancreas is central to treatment.

Chronic pancreatitis is a long-term, progressive inflammatory process that can cause permanent pancreatic damage and scarring, impairing enzyme and hormone production and leading to digestive and metabolic issues. Alcohol abuse is the most common cause in adults; cystic fibrosis is a frequent cause in children.

Pancreatic pseudocysts are fluid-filled cavities encapsulated by fibrous tissue, often arising after pancreatitis or trauma. They are benign but may require intervention—ranging from observation to surgical drainage—if symptomatic or complicated.

Pancreatic necrosis occurs when pancreatic tissue dies due to severe inflammation or loss of blood flow. Management is complex and requires a multidisciplinary team including gastroenterologists, surgeons, interventional radiologists, and intensivists.

A pancreatic abscess is a collection of pus following necrosis and infection. Treatment typically requires drainage, either percutaneously under imaging guidance or surgically, alongside antibiotics or antifungal therapy.

Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMNs) are cystic tumors that can become malignant. Their silent progression necessitates surgical resection when there is evidence of high-risk features.

Benign pancreatic tumors do not metastasize and grow slowly but can cause symptoms by compressing adjacent structures. Surgical resection is recommended for symptomatic tumors, those with high malignant potential, or those exerting pressure; low-risk tumors may be monitored with periodic imaging.

Traumatic splenic rupture is a life-threatening injury in which the spleen capsule tears, causing internal bleeding. It often follows blunt abdominal trauma. Treatment ranges from careful inpatient monitoring to splenic artery embolization or splenectomy depending on the injury’s severity and bleeding rate.

A splenic abscess is a rare but serious infection leading to pus within the spleen. Antibiotics alone are usually insufficient; drainage is required either percutaneously under radiologic guidance or surgically, potentially with splenectomy for large or complex abscesses.

Splenomegaly is an enlarged spleen, not a disease itself but a sign of an underlying condition. Treatment targets the primary cause; in refractory cases or complications, splenectomy may be considered.

Splenic cysts are fluid-filled lesions within the spleen, classified as true (primary) or pseudocysts. Large or rapidly enlarging cysts often require surgical excision or ultrasound-guided aspiration.

Primary splenic malignancies are rare cancers originating in the spleen. Management depends on tumor type and stage but often involves splenectomy, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy.

Lymphomas involving the spleen arise from lymphocytes and may be primary or secondary. Treatment varies by lymphoma subtype and stage and can include splenectomy, immunotherapy (e.g., rituximab), chemotherapy, and radiotherapy.

Colorectal carcinoma is cancer of the colon and rectum. In early stages, the disease may be asymptomatic, but as it progresses symptoms can include changes in bowel habits, abdominal pain, and blood in the stool. Treatment typically involves surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy.

Diverticulitis occurs when diverticula (small pouch-like herniations in the colon wall) become inflamed or infected. In severe cases or when complications arise, hospitalization and surgical removal of the affected segment of colon may be required.

Bowel obstruction is a serious medical condition requiring urgent care. If left untreated, it can lead to complications such as dehydration, electrolyte imbalances, intestinal ischemia (loss of blood flow), perforation of the bowel, and sepsis, which can be life-threatening.

Gastric outlet obstruction is a blockage that prevents normal emptying of the stomach into the first part of the small intestine. Surgical treatment is often necessary for definitive relief, especially in malignant cases or when endoscopic methods fail.

Complications of inflammatory bowel disease (ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease) can affect the intestines and extraintestinal sites. Long-standing IBD, particularly ulcerative colitis, increases the risk of colorectal carcinoma. Regular colonoscopies with biopsy are recommended for surveillance.

Appendicitis is inflammation of the appendix, a small, tubular structure at the junction of the small and large intestine. Untreated appendicitis can lead to rupture (perforation), abscess formation, or sepsis. Treatment is surgical removal of the appendix (appendectomy), performed either via open or laparoscopic approach.